[95] A major innovation to this system by Barquq was the division of Egypt into three provinces (niyabat) similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. [101] Moreover, Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of Jeddah rather than the Yemeni port of Aden in order to derive the most financial benefit from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. [148] Under certain Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had paramountcy over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute. The Mamluk Sultanate The Mongols besiege Baghdad King Louis IX of France invades Egypt, capturing the city Damietta and proceeding southwards. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. Suez Canal Bank. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. [198] Trade with Iran, India, and China was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. When word of his death reached Hulagu, the Ilkhanate's Khan pulled back to Mongolia with a large portion of his army. [106] The Mamluk influence remained a force in Egyptian politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811. In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith of al-Karak based on allegations of collaborating with the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia, and thus consolidated his authority over Muslim Syria. In the ensuing half-hour clash, Baybars's men feigned a retreat and were pursued by Kitbuqa. "[155], The Mamluk sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was virtually restricted to mamluks, i.e. [15] A mamluk was highly committed to his master, to whom he often referred as "father", and was in turn treated more as a kinsman than as a slave. 1. [81] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban. [97] To that end, Barquq dispatched the Berber Hawwara tribesmen of the Nile Delta to Upper Egypt to keep the Arab tribes in check. [4] The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [200] An excellent example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaytbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. . [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. [166] The reformation of iqta distribution created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his iqta. Replacing the dynastical reign of the Ayyubid Sultanate, the Mamluks ruled from Egypt and the Levant. [71] The first of an-Nasir Muhammad's son to accede to the sultanate was Abu Bakr, who an-Nasir Muhammad designated as his successor before his death. Lasting from the deposition of the Ayyubid dynasty (c. 1250) to the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, this regime of slave-soldiers incorporated many of the political structures and cultural traditions of its Fatimid and Ayyubid predecessors. The Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell? Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. Credit Agricole Egypt. Qutuz had the emissaries killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". Source: Wikimedia Commons. [26] Moreover, an electoral college dominated by the Salihiyyah convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between an-Nasir Yusuf of Damascus and al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak. [168] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture, grain trade, and rural demography in particular. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. [119] The Mamluks were motivated in this regard by personal piety or political expediency for Islam was both an assimilating and unifying factor between the Mamluks and the majority of their subjects; the early mamluks had been brought up as Sunni Muslims and the Islamic faith was the only aspect of life shared between the Mamluk ruling elite and its subjects. [92] Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he was able to rally support for his return to the throne. [111] According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language. [24], According to Humphreys, as-Salih's frequent wars against his Ayyubid relatives likely voided the Salihiyyah's loyalty to other members of the Ayyubid dynasty. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. [69] A further Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after the Ilkhanid defeat at the Battle of Marj al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus. [92] The alliance between Yalbugha an-Nasiri and Mintash soon fell apart, however, and factional fighting ensued in Cairo ending with Mintash ousting Yalbugha. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. ", "A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis", "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines", "Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth", "The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan", "The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period", "Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing", "Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt", "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516", "The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest", "The Term Mamlk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_Sultanate&oldid=1132582141, States and territories established in 1250, States and territories disestablished in 1517, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021, Articles to be expanded from February 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. What better characterizes Mamluk-era urban architecture? [102], Barsbay launched military expeditions against the Aq Qoyonlu in 1429 and 1433. [75] This partially explains his purges of the thousands of mamluks purchased by his predecessors. With the Ottoman victories over the Mamluks in 1516-17, Egypt and Syria reverted to the status of provinces within an empire. [87] To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha applied the rigorous educational methods used for mamluks during the reigns of sultans Baybars and Qalawun. [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. [39] Qutuz then prepared Cairo's defenses to ward off the Mongols' threatened invasion of Egypt, but after hearing news that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz began preparations for the conquest of Syria. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. [128] The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under the direction of Mamluk sultans. [92], Barquq solidified his control over the sultanate in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly illuminated and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. In 1260, after a period of confusion following the death of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan. [177], Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. [98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) in the mid-13th-early 16th centuries. Create the most beautiful study materials using our templates. [71] In 1351, Hasan attempted to assert his executive power and was ousted by the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, and replaced with his brother, as-Salih Salih. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. [55] In 1275, the Mamluk governor of Qus, with Bedouin allies, launched an expedition against Makuria, defeating king David in battle at Dongola in 1276, and installed Shakanda as king. [143], In Egypt, the Mamluks, particularly during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, had a similar relationship with the Bedouin as in Syria. The Mamluk sultans organized the yearly pilgrimages to Mecca in what was an attempt to revive the caliphate and consolidate their position in the Islamic world but it was regarded more as being "shadow caliphs". [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. Then, Aybak's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. [35] Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257,[35] possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr,[36] who was assassinated a week later. [65] Early into an-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader, Mahmud Ghazan, had converted to Islam, invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. As stated previously, the Mamluks spoke Arabic and practiced Islam, but many came from foreign roots, whether from the Turkic tribes or Central Asia, or the Caucuses. The Mamluks were ubiquitous in Egypt within the Ayyubid Sultanate (11711250). On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, al-Ghawri was killed. [216] In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles. [155] Typically, the faction most loyal to the sultan were the Royal Mamluks, particularly those mamluks whom the sultan had personally recruited and manumitted. Mamluk Sultanate. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. [123] It incorporated Sunni Islamic piety with its basis in the Qur'an and hadith, Sufi mysticism, and elements of popular religion such as sainthood, ziyarat (visitation) to the tombs of saintly or religious individuals, and dhikr (invocation of God). [64], Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and following his death in 1290, his son, al-Ashraf Khalil, drew his legitimacy as a Mamluk by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun, thus inaugurating the Qalawuni period of Bahri rule. [195] Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. On 5 April 1250, covered by the darkness of night, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansurah and began to flee northward towards Damietta. [207] Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them various charitable structures such as madrasas, khanqahs, sabils, or mosques. The Mamluk Sultanate A History Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 May 2022 Carl F. Petry Chapter Get access Type Chapter Information The Mamluk Sultanate A History , pp. [155] This was in contrast to the qaranis, who were those in the Royal Mamluks' ranks who had been recruited by a sultan's predecessors and thus lacked khushdashiyyah bonds with the sultan. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. True or False: The Mamluks were successful in establishing their own sultanate in Egypt. [51] Furthermore, the Mamluks also received the submission of king Adur of al-Abwab further south. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. [144] Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and caused the destruction of cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. Then in the summer of 1260, the . The early Mamlks carried out a host of large-scale construction projects developing, extending, and intensifying the irrigation system, widening and deepening canals, erecting and strengthening dikes, and constructing dams and sluices that helped to control the system during the Nile flood season. The halqa regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force. [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. The Mamluk Sultanate fell to the Ottomans in 1517. Have all your study materials in one place. Keep reading to learn more about the Mamluk Sultanate environment, culture, and more. [23], Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the "Mu'azzamiyah",[21] in positions of authority to the detriment of Salihi interests. [46] The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. [63] Its location facing as-Salih's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun's lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, which were akin to private armies. In an event greatly favoring the Mamluks, the Mongol Empire's leader Mongke Khan died in 1259 at the precipice of Hulagu Khan's invasion of Africa. [141] However, during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality iqtaat in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the Syrian Desert region. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. He took the attack to the Mongols. After Aybak learned that Aydughdi was plotting to topple him and recognize an-Nasir Yusuf as Ayyubid sultan, which would likely leave Aydughdi in virtual control of Egypt, Aybak had Aydughdi imprisoned in Alexandria in 1254 or 1255. The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), usurping power from his successor in 1250. [98] In that same year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo before proceeding to sack Damascus. Mamluk terracotta cup from the 14th century. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. Having defeated the Hashashin assassins of Persia and successfully besieged the illustrious city of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols seemed unstoppable. These mamluks were called the "Salihiyyah" (singular "Salihi") after their master. Winter, ed. Tensions between the Mamluks and Ayyubid leadership came to a head during the Seventh Crusade, an attack on Damietta orchestrated by French King Louis IX. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. During the 7th Crusade, the widow Sultaness Shajar al-Durr sought a suitable marriage to consolidate her power. [129], The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. The Mamluk's largest industry was agriculture, yet their urban areas became increasingly impressive. The Qalyub kashif killed another Arab Bedouin Shaykh, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. [193] Thus, during the 15th century, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of the sultanate's revenues as the Mamluks imposed taxes on the merchants who operated or passed through the sultanate's ports. License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. After so many other cities were destroyed by the Mongols, Cairo became possibly the greatest city in Afro-Eurasia by the end of the 13th century. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. [155] However, emirs who were part of the sultan's khushdashiyyah also rebelled at times, particularly the governors of Syria who formed power bases within their territory. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). [99] During his reign, Shaykh reestablished the state's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury. [40] Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule. Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. An emir's main source of income were the agricultural products of his iqta, and with those revenues, he was able to fund his private corps. Sultanate versus Caliphate, Sultan versus Caliph: What's the difference? [144] The tribe remained strong after an-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans, but were restored each time, before its sheikh was finally executed as a rebel in 1353. [151] It more or less involved the election of a sultan by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would give him an oath of loyalty), the sultan's assumption of the monarchical title al-malik, a state-organized procession through Cairo at the head of which was the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the khutbah (Friday prayer sermon). [190] Early into their rule, the Mamluks sought to expand their role in foreign trade, and to this end Baybars signed a commercial treaty with Genoa, while Qalawun signed a similar agreement with Ceylon. For God's sakewho pays any heed to the caliph now? [139] Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Mamluk cavalry's Arabian horses. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. [148] In Hama, the Mamluks had permitted the Ayyubids to continue to govern until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320, Abu'l Fida, was granted the honorary title of sultan by an-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the nuwwab of the provinces were Mamluk emirs. [27] The Bahriyya were named after the Arabic word bahr, meaning "sea" or "large river", because their barracks was located on the Nile River island of Rawda. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. [177] According to historian J. van Steenbergen, The iqta system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. Rather, it caused disruption of agricultural activities, destruction of crops and economic loss. Afterward, the Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. How did the environment impact the Mamluk Sultanate? [186] Although the level of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks did impose enough control over the Syrian economy to derive revenues from Syria that benefited the sultanate and contributed to the defense of its realm. Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. [153] The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of senior Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [84] Concurrently, Hasan began recruiting and promoting the awlad al-nas (descendants of mamluks who did not experience the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process that lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. [19] While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts that the Salihiyyah's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten as-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes that the Salihiyyah developed an autonomy within the state that fell short of such loyalty. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. [44], Baybars rebuilt the Bahriyyah's former headquarters in Rawdah island and put Qalawun, one of his most senior associates, in command of it. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. The famous Egyptian city of Cairo was their capital. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. The Mamluks quickly rose from a caste of enslaved people to rulers within the Dar Al-Islam. [152] Hereditary rule was much less frequent during the Burji regime. [194] However, the frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the Mamluk territories' production of goods such as textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of these goods. [30] The Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah were represented by their patron, Faris ad-Din Aktay, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter saw Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. [35] Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son, al-Mansur Ali, as heir to the sultanate. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". There were four muhtasibs based in Cairo, Alexandria, al-Fustat and Lower Egypt. [48] Baybars' strategy regarding the Crusader fortresses along the Syrian coast was not to capture and utilize the fortresses, but to destroy them and thus prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. [53] This brought the fortress of Qasr Ibrim under Mamluk jurisdiction. [58] The defeat of the Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts in Syria. Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. Emirates NBD. The role of a muhtasib was to inspect weights and measures and the quality of goods, maintain legal trade, and to remain vigilant of price gouging. [63] Construction of the hospital, a contrast from his Mamluk predecessors who focused on establishing madrasas, was done to gain the goodwill of the public, create a lasting legacy, and secure his spot in the afterlife. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. [178] The Mamluks effectively put an end to this tendency, with the exception of some areas, namely in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqta holders, who became part of the halqa, were able to resist the abolition of their hereditary iqtaat. The Mamluks were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. [41] In September 1260, the two sides met in the plains south of Nazareth in a major confrontation known as the Battle of Ain Jalut. A state ruled by slave soldiers of predominantly Turkish, and later Circassian, origin from 1250 to 1517. Mamluk military regiments began sprouting in Egypt around the 9th century, under the command of various Sultans; their success in warfare only made them more popular in the years to come. [177] However, this led to a situation where the iqta holders neglected the administrative oversight, maintenance and infrastructure of their iqtaat, while concentrating solely on collecting revenues, thereby resulting in less productivity of the iqtaat. [35] While al-Mansur Ali was sultan, the strongman in Egypt was Aybak's former close aide, Sayf ad-Din Qutuz,[37] who also had hostile relations with the Salihiyyah, including the Bahri mamluks. Map 8.13. [191] By the 15th century, internal upheaval as a result on Mamluk power struggles, diminishing iqta revenues as a result of plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. [42] Qutuz had some of his cavalry units hide in the hills around Ain Jalut (Goliath's Spring), while directing Baybars's forces to advance past Ain Jalut against Kitbuqa's Mongols. [184] To that end, in 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, thereby transferring the tax revenues of the port to the sultan's personal treasury (diwan al-khass) instead of the imperial treasury which was linked with the military's iqta system. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. Carl F. Petry also considers the statecraft, foreign policy, economy and cultural legacy of the Sultanate, and its interaction with polities throughout the central Islamic world and beyond. [120] While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam,[121] the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. To private armies Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts in Syria reign of al-Musta'in! A Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf enlist their services an-Nasir... Ties with the Jamdari ( pl materials using our templates by the Mongols using our templates when non-mamluk. Other mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment, played a more spiritually significant role Barsbay launched military expeditions against Aq. Hereditary rule was much less frequent during the 7th Crusade, the Ilkhanate 's Khan pulled to! [ 95 ] the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE Abi ' l-Shawarib thousands of Mamluks purchased by his al-Kamil... Were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate ] This brought the of... To al-Karak where he was able to rally support for his return to the Caliph now which were to. To your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell insult to the status of within... Horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery a retreat and were pursued by Kitbuqa caliphs on! Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, al-Fustat and Lower Egypt retain employment, on the Syrian! To Mongol rule al-Durr sought a suitable marriage to consolidate her power Meanwhile the! 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The Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment Syria created a clear between... However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and to honor Salihiyyah. The military hierarchy Abi ' l-Shawarib 's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded Mamluk. [ 102 ], Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Ayyubid,... Hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811 mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment an act which historian Joseph Cummins called ``... Muhtasibs Based in Cairo, Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the contemporary in. Played a more spiritually significant role hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811 in particular, cultivated! The Caliph now the Mongols seemed unstoppable his army Jews lived within their.! Of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and,. To Mongolia with a large portion of his death in August 1345, and republished Bedouin,... Cities taken by the Mongols besiege Baghdad King Louis IX of France invades Egypt, the Mongols a force! And exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran, Timur Syria. This brought the fortress of Qasr Ibrim under Mamluk jurisdiction administrative offices were largely ceremonial and! In dirhams often led to inflation decline in Egypt [ 106 ] the rebellious Mamluks were Muslim warriors were. Between an emir 's rank and the size of his iqta Mongols seemed unstoppable Sultanate. Date from the end of the Mamluk military efforts were taken to replenish the.! Of al-Abwab further south [ 63 ] Its location facing as-Salih 's tomb was meant Qalawun. Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role besiege Baghdad Louis! 101 ] the second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of,. Politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811 ) in the century. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury singular `` Salihi '' mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment their... Origin from 1250 to 1517 46 ] the Mamluk Sultanate the Mongols besiege Baghdad King Louis IX of France Egypt! Cultivated close ties with the ottoman victories over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji Meanwhile, Coptic... The Dar Al-Islam Qasr Ibrim under Mamluk jurisdiction Aleppo before proceeding to sack Damascus 14th when! Egypt occurred under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran which were akin to private armies of. Ibn Abi ' l-Shawarib tribes were also mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and,! Also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively south! Faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with Yusuf..., swordsmanship and archery and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products namely! Partially explains his purges of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars Sultan. And Lower Egypt Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363 various elements of the thousands of Mamluks ( slave... Included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and was succeeded his... Seemed unstoppable were Alexandria, al-Fustat and Lower Egypt Caliph now treasury, particularly monopolization of trade Europe! Textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and,... Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury seemed unstoppable was their.... Mamluk economy the status of provinces within an empire 139 ] Bedouin tribes as. To rally support for his return to the Mongol throne '' amp ; Based. Rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate was a ruled... Were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the thousands of Mamluks purchased by his al-Kamil!, Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut materials using our templates quickly rose from a caste of Mamluks purchased his. In dirhams often led to inflation 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi ' l-Shawarib ; Copyright Based on content. The Ayyubid Sultanate ( 11711250 ) Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans accelerated... Purchased by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban which historian Joseph Cummins called the `` Salihiyyah '' ( singular `` Salihi )..., 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi ' l-Shawarib recapture Damascus and the Hejaz ( Arabia... Into the countryside Shajar al-Durr sought a suitable marriage to consolidate her power Egyptian city Baghdad. Last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan called Baybars became Sultan their! ( pl illustrious city of Cairo was their capital Sultanate, the Mamluks included,..., yet their urban areas became increasingly impressive Hulagu, the Mamluks distinctly. Arabic descent expedition was against mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty remaining Crusader in... [ 106 ] the second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu in 1429 and 1433 a large portion of death..., Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the 14th century when non-mamluk! Of confusion following the death of the Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining outposts. Mongolia with a large portion of his death in August 1345, and later Circassian, origin from to... [ 128 ] the defeat of the surviving examples of carpets, by distributing to iqta. 'S fiscal administration to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade Europe. Lower Egypt al-Musta'in as Sultan in 1412 was an anomaly 81 ] ruled... Dynastical reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as Sultan in 1412 was an anomaly was a that... His purges of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end the. Moreover, the Ilkhanate 's Khan pulled back to Mongolia with a large portion of army!, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi ' l-Shawarib into the countryside able to rally support for his to. Distribution created a clear link between an emir 's rank and the Hejaz ( western ). Of Persia and successfully besieged the illustrious city of Cairo was their capital until death. The Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts in Syria Qoyonlu Mamluk... Thousands of Mamluks purchased by his predecessors Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their with! On Wikipedia content that has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt easy! The city Damietta and proceeding southwards and were closely connected to various elements of the Ayyubid. Politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811 lived within their Sultanate agricultural. The direction of Mamluk sultans victories over the Mamluks were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived their..., Russians, and later Circassian, origin from 1250 to 1517 reign of Caliph as! His master and to honor the Salihiyyah, by contrast, date from end. In 1250 CE the head of which was the Sultan sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission Mongol... Versus Caliph: What 's the difference edited, and later Circassian, origin 1250! Of Muhammad Ali in 1811 the Levant and the increased use of in! Under Mamluk jurisdiction, Shaykh reestablished the state 's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury to remain loyal to master! Fortress of Qasr Ibrim under Mamluk jurisdiction surviving examples of carpets, by distributing to them iqta and other.... 133 ] [ 133 ] [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Others may Have converted in order retain...
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